Details — Minerals and Energy Resources

1. What Is a Mineral?

Geologists’ definition: a homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable internal structure. Forms range from hardest diamond to softest talc. Rocks are combinations of minerals (some rocks like limestone = single mineral). Over 2000 minerals identified; few are abundant.

Formation depends on physical/chemical conditions → varied colour, hardness, crystal form, lustre, density—used for classification.

Who studies what?	Focus
Geographers	Minerals as part of crust/landforms; distribution & economic activities
Geologists	Formation, age, physical & chemical composition

Ore: accumulation of a mineral mixed with other elements, in sufficient concentration for commercial extraction. Structure of formation affects ease and cost of mining.

2. Modes of Occurrence

Mode	How formed / where	Examples
Veins & lodes in igneous/metamorphic rocks	Minerals in liquid/molten/gaseous form forced upward through cavities; cool & solidify; small = veins, large = lodes	Tin, copper, zinc, lead
Beds/layers in sedimentary rocks	Deposition, accumulation, concentration in horizontal strata; heat & pressure; or evaporation in arid regions	Coal; some iron ore; gypsum, potash salt, sodium salt
Residual mass	Decomposition of surface rocks; soluble parts removed	Bauxite
Placer deposits	Alluvial deposits in valley floors & hill bases; not corroded by water	Gold, silver, tin, platinum
Oceans	Waters too diffuse usually; beds have manganese nodules	Common salt, magnesium, bromine from ocean waters

Rat-hole mining (Meghalaya): family tunnels for coal (Jowai, Cherapunjee); minerals often community/individual owned in NE tribal areas (unlike nationalised minerals needing government permission elsewhere). National Green Tribunal declared such activities illegal; recommended stoppage.

Northern alluvial plains are almost devoid of economic minerals. Peninsular rocks hold most coal, metallic minerals, mica, many non-metallics. Petroleum mostly in sedimentary rocks on western/eastern flanks (Gujarat, Assam). Rajasthan has many non-ferrous mineral reserves.

Economic viability depends on: concentration in ore, ease of extraction, closeness to market. A deposit/reserve becomes a mine when chosen for extraction.

3. Ferrous Minerals

~Three-fourths of total value of metallic mineral production; base for metallurgical industries; India exports surplus ferrous minerals.

Iron Ore — Backbone of Industry

Type	Feature
Magnetite	Finest; up to 70% iron; excellent magnetic qualities; valuable in electrical industry
Hematite	Most important industrially by quantity used; 50–60% iron

2018–19: ~97% production from Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Jharkhand; 3% other states.

Major belts:

Odisha–Jharkhand: Badampahar (Mayurbhanj, Kendujhar) high-grade hematite; Gua & Noamundi (Singbhum, Jharkhand).
Durg–Bastar–Chandrapur (Chhattisgarh–Maharashtra): Bailadila (Bastar) — 14 deposits of super high-grade hematite; best physical properties for steel; export to Japan & South Korea via Vishakhapatnam.
Ballari–Chitradurga–Chikkamagaluru–Tumakuru (Karnataka): Kudremukh — 100% export unit; among world’s largest; slurry pipeline to port near Mangaluru.
Maharashtra–Goa: Goa & Ratnagiri; not very high quality but efficiently exploited; export via Marmagao.

Manganese

Used in steel and ferro-manganese alloy; ~10 kg manganese per tonne of steel.
Also bleaching powder, insecticides, paints.
2018–19 state shares (figure): Madhya Pradesh 33%, Maharashtra 27%, Odisha 16%, Karnataka 12%, Andhra Pradesh 10%, Others 2%.

4. Non-Ferrous Minerals

India’s reserves/production not very satisfactory, but vital for metallurgical, engineering, electrical industries.

Copper

Critically deficient in reserve and production.
Malleable, ductile, good conductor → electrical cables, electronics, chemical industries.
Leading producers: Balaghat (MP), Khetri (Rajasthan), Singhbhum (Jharkhand).

Bauxite → Aluminium

Clay-like substance; alumina then aluminium; formed by decomposition of rocks rich in aluminium silicates.
Aluminium: strength of metals like iron + extreme lightness + conductivity + malleability.
Deposits: Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills, Bilaspur–Katni plateau.
2018–19: Odisha largest (65%); Panchpatmali (Koraput) most important in state. Others: Jharkhand 10%, Gujarat 9%, Chhattisgarh 6%, Maharashtra 6%, MP 3%, Others 1%.

5. Non-Metallic and Rock Minerals

Mica

Plates/leaves; splits into thin sheets; excellent dielectric strength, insulating properties, high-voltage resistance → electric/electronic industries.
Leading: Koderma–Gaya–Hazaribagh belt (Jharkhand) on northern edge of Chota Nagpur plateau.
Also Ajmer (Rajasthan); Nellore belt (Andhra Pradesh).

Limestone

Calcium carbonates or Ca–Mg carbonates; sedimentary rocks.
Basic raw material for cement; essential for smelting iron in blast furnaces.

6. Hazards of Mining

Hazard	Effect
Dust & noxious fumes	Pulmonary diseases
Collapsing roofs, inundation, coal-mine fires	Constant threat to miners
Contaminated water; waste/slurry dumps	Land/soil degradation; stream & river pollution

Need stricter safety regulations and environmental laws so mining does not become a “killer industry.”

7. Conservation of Minerals

Workable deposits = insignificant fraction (~1%) of Earth’s crust.
Formation takes millions of years; replenishment negligible vs consumption → finite, non-renewable.
Continued extraction → greater depths, higher costs, lower quality.
Steps: planned sustainable use; technologies for low-grade ores at low cost; recycling, scrap metals, substitutes.

8. Energy Resources — Classification

Conventional	Non-conventional
Firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas, electricity (hydel & thermal)	Solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas, atomic energy

Rural India: firewood & dung cake meet >70% household energy (estimate); forest decline makes continuation hard; dung cake discouraged (wastes valuable manure).

9. Conventional Energy Detail

Coal

Most abundant fossil fuel in India; power, industry, domestic; high dependence for commercial energy.

Rank / type	Feature
Peat	Low carbon, high moisture, low heating
Lignite	Low-grade brown coal; soft; high moisture; Neyveli (TN) for electricity
Bituminous	Deep burial + heat; most popular commercial coal; high-grade = metallurgical coal for blast furnaces
Anthracite	Highest quality hard coal

Ages: Gondwana (~>200 million years) — metallurgical coal in Damodar valley (WB–Jharkhand): Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro; also Godavari, Mahanadi, Son, Wardha valleys.
Tertiary (~55 million years): Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland.

Coal is bulky and loses weight to ash → heavy industries & thermal plants located on/near coalfields.

Petroleum

Next major energy source after coal; fuels, lubricants, raw material. Refineries = nodal industry for synthetic textiles, fertiliser, chemicals.

Occurs with anticlines/fault traps in tertiary rocks; porous limestone/sandstone between non-porous layers; gas usually above oil.

Areas: Mumbai High; Gujarat (Ankleshwar most important); Assam oldest oil state — Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran-Hugrijan.

Natural Gas

Released with petroleum; domestic/industrial fuel; power; heating; chemical/petrochemical/fertiliser feedstock; CNG transport; PNG cooking.
Reserves: Mumbai High & west coast/Cambay; new east-coast finds in Krishna–Godavari basin.
HVJ pipeline (Hazira–Vijaipur–Jagdishpur), 1,700 km by GAIL — linked Mumbai High/Bassein to fertiliser, power, industry in west & north. Gas pipelines expanded from 1,700 km to 18,500 km; expected >34,000 km Gas Grid including NE.

Electricity

Per capita consumption = index of development.
Hydro: fast flowing water (renewable) — Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley Corporation, Kopili Hydel, etc.
Thermal: coal, petroleum, natural gas (non-renewable fossils). Electricity once generated is the same.

10. Non-Conventional Energy

Need rises because of fossil dependence, price/security risks, environmental problems. India has abundance of sun, water, wind, biomass; largest programmes for renewables.

Source	Key points
Nuclear	Alter atomic structure → heat → power; Uranium & Thorium in Jharkhand & Aravalli (Rajasthan); Monazite sands of Kerala rich in Thorium
Solar	Tropical country; photovoltaic → electricity; rural/remote popularity; big plants reduce firewood/dung dependence → environment + manure for farms
Wind	Largest cluster: Tamil Nadu Nagarcoil to Madurai; also AP, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra, Lakshadweep; Nagarcoil & Jaisalmer well known
Biogas	Shrubs, farm/animal/human waste; higher thermal efficiency than kerosene/dung/charcoal; Gobar gas plants; energy + improved manure; saves trees
Tidal	Floodgate dams on inlets; Gulf of Khambhat, Gulf of Kuchchh (Gujarat); Gangetic delta Sunderbans (WB)
Geothermal	Earth’s interior heat; hot groundwater → steam → turbines; experimental projects: Parvati valley near Manikaran (HP); Puga Valley (Ladakh)

11. Conservation of Energy

Energy needed in every sector; consumption rising since Independence. Twin planks of sustainable energy: conservation + increased renewables. India among least energy-efficient; use public transport, switch off unused power, power-saving devices, non-conventional sources. “Energy saved is energy produced.”