Details — Resources and Development

1. What Is a Resource?

Everything in our environment that can satisfy human needs can be called a resource, provided it is:

Technologically accessible — we have the means to use it
Economically feasible — using it makes economic sense
Culturally acceptable — society accepts its use

Key idea: Resources are not free gifts of nature. They are a function of human activities. Humans transform materials into resources through technology and create institutions that speed economic development. Nature, technology and institutions form an interdependent relationship.

2. Classification of Resources

Basis	Types
Origin	Biotic and abiotic
Exhaustibility	Renewable and non-renewable
Ownership	Individual, community, national and international
Status of development	Potential, developed stock and reserves

Note: The extracted chapter text lists these categories but does not give full definitions of each subtype in continuous prose. For exam definitions of biotic/abiotic, renewable/non-renewable, etc., use classroom notes or teacher-provided definitions based on the textbook figures/boxes if they appear in your print edition.

3. Development of Resources — Problems of Indiscriminate Use

Resources are vital for survival and quality of life. Because people once treated them as free gifts, they used them without care. Major problems:

Problem	Effect
Depletion of resources	Satisfies greed of a few; reduces availability for others
Accumulation in few hands	Society splits into haves and have-nots (rich and poor)
Ecological crises	Global warming, ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution, land degradation

Exam Tip: Equitable distribution of resources is essential for sustained quality of life and global peace. Continued depletion by a few individuals and countries endangers the planet’s future.

4. Sustainable Development

Definition (as in the book): Sustainable economic development means development should take place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not compromise the needs of future generations.

Sustainable existence is a component of sustainable development. Resource planning is essential for the sustainable existence of all forms of life.

5. Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992

Point	Detail
When / Where	June 1992, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Who	More than 100 heads of states
Purpose	Address urgent problems of environmental protection and socio-economic development at the global level
Outcomes	Leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological Diversity; Rio Convention endorsed global Forest Principles; adopted Agenda 21

Agenda 21

Declaration signed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), Rio de Janeiro, 1992
Aim: achieve global sustainable development
Agenda to combat environmental damage, poverty and disease through global cooperation on common interests, mutual needs and shared responsibilities
Major objective: every local government should draw its own local Agenda 21

6. Resource Planning

Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources. It is especially important in India because of enormous diversity in resource availability:

Region / State	Resource situation
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh	Rich in minerals and coal
Arunachal Pradesh	Abundance of water; lacks infrastructural development
Rajasthan	Well endowed with solar and wind energy; lacks water
Ladakh (cold desert)	Rich cultural heritage; deficient in water, infrastructure and some vital minerals

Some regions are self-sufficient; others face acute shortage of vital resources. This calls for balanced resource planning at national, state, regional and local levels.

Resource Planning in India — Three Steps

Identification and inventory of resources across regions — surveying, mapping, qualitative and quantitative estimation
Planning structure with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set-up to implement resource development plans
Matching resource development plans with overall national development plans

India has pursued resource planning goals from the First Five Year Plan launched after Independence.

Resources Alone Do Not Ensure Development

Availability of resources is a necessary condition for regional development
Without corresponding changes in technology and institutions, development may be hindered
Some regions are resource-rich but economically backward; others are resource-poor but economically developed
Colonisation history: rich resources in colonies attracted invaders; colonisers’ higher technological development helped them exploit colonial resources
In India, development needs: resource availability + technology + quality of human resources + historical experiences of the people

7. Conservation of Resources

Irrational consumption and over-utilisation cause socio-economic and environmental problems. Conservation at various levels is important.

Thinker / Event	Contribution
Gandhiji	“There is enough for everybody’s need and not for any body’s greed.” Blamed greedy individuals and exploitative modern technology; against mass production; favoured production by the masses
Club of Rome (1968)	Advocated resource conservation systematically for the first time at international level
Schumacher (1974)	Presented Gandhian philosophy again in Small is Beautiful
Brundtland Commission Report (1987)	Introduced Sustainable Development; advocated it for resource conservation; later published as Our Common Future
Earth Summit, Rio (1992)	Another significant global contribution

8. Land Resources

Land supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life, economic activities, transport and communication. It is an asset of finite magnitude, so careful planning of land use is essential.

Relief Features and Land Share

Relief	Approx. share	Significance
Plains	~43%	Agriculture and industry
Mountains	~30%	Perennial river flow, tourism, ecological aspects
Plateaus	~27%	Minerals, fossil fuels, forests

Total geographical area of India: 3.28 million sq km.
Land-use data available for only about 93% of total geographical area (incomplete reporting in most north-east states except Assam; some areas of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China not surveyed).

9. Land Utilisation

Land is used for:

Forests
Land not available for cultivation
- Barren and waste land
- Land put to non-agricultural uses (buildings, roads, factories, etc.)
Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow)
- Permanent pastures and grazing land
- Land under miscellaneous tree crops/groves (not in net sown area)
- Culturable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years)
Fallow lands
- Current fallow (one or less than one agricultural year)
- Other than current fallow (1 to 5 agricultural years)
Net sown area (NSA) — physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested

Gross cropped area = Area sown more than once in an agricultural year + Net sown area.

10. Land Use Pattern in India

Land use is determined by:

Physical factors: topography, climate, soil types
Human factors: population density, technological capability, culture and traditions

Important Pattern Facts

Fact	Detail
Net sown area variation	Over 80% in Punjab and Haryana; less than 10% in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Including certain lands	If lands cultivated once or twice in about two–three years are included, NSA ≈ 54% of total reporting area
Forest area	Far lower than desired 33% of geographical area outlined in National Forest Policy (1952) — needed for ecological balance and livelihood of millions on forest fringes
Permanent pasture	Has decreased — concern for feeding huge cattle population
Waste land	Rocky, arid and desert areas; non-agricultural uses include settlements, roads, railways, industry

Continuous use without conservation leads to land degradation, with serious social and environmental repercussions.

11. Land Degradation and Conservation

About 95% of basic needs for food, shelter and clothing come from land. Human activities degrade land and speed up natural damaging forces.

Causes by Region (Cause → Effect)

Region / Activity	Cause	Effect
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha	Deforestation due to mining; abandoned mining sites with deep scars and overburden	Severe land degradation
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra	Overgrazing	Land degradation
Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh	Over-irrigation → water logging → salinity and alkalinity	Land degradation
Mineral processing (limestone for cement; calcite & soapstone for ceramics)	Huge dust; settles on land	Retards infiltration of water into soil
Many industrial areas	Industrial effluents	Land and water pollution

Conservation Measures

Afforestation and proper management of grazing
Shelter belts; control on overgrazing
Stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes (arid areas)
Proper management of waste lands
Control of mining activities
Proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment

12. Soil as a Resource

Soil is the most important natural resource—the medium of plant growth and support for living organisms. It is a living system. Formation of a few cm of soil may take millions of years.

Factors in soil formation: relief, parent rock/bedrock, climate, vegetation and other life forms, and time. Forces include temperature change, running water, wind, glaciers, decomposers; chemical and organic changes; organic (humus) and inorganic materials.

Classification considers factors of formation, colour, thickness, texture, age, and chemical/physical properties.

13. Classification of Soils

A. Alluvial Soils

Feature	Detail
Importance	Most widely spread and important soil
Location	Entire northern plains (Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra); extend through narrow corridor into Rajasthan and Gujarat; eastern coastal plains—deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri
Composition	Various proportions of sand, silt and clay; coarser inland near break of slope; common in piedmont plains (Duars, Chos, Terai)
Age types	Bangar (old) — higher kanker nodules; Khadar (new) — more fine particles, more fertile than bangar
Fertility	Adequate potash, phosphoric acid and lime; ideal for sugarcane, paddy, wheat, cereals and pulses; intensively cultivated and densely populated
Dry areas	More alkaline; productive after proper treatment and irrigation

B. Black Soil (Regur / Black Cotton Soil)

Feature	Detail
Colour / names	Black; also called regur; ideal for cotton → “black cotton soil”
Formation	Climate + parent rock; typical of Deccan trap (basalt) / lava flows
Spread	Northwest Deccan plateau; Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh; SE along Godavari and Krishna valleys
Properties	Extremely fine clayey; high moisture-holding; rich in calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash, lime; generally poor in phosphoric contents; deep cracks in hot weather (aeration); sticky when wet

C. Red and Yellow Soils

Develop on crystalline igneous rocks in low-rainfall areas of eastern and southern Deccan plateau
Also in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern middle Ganga plain, piedmont zone of Western Ghats
Reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks; yellow when hydrated

D. Laterite Soil

Feature	Detail
Name origin	Latin later = brick
Formation	Tropical/subtropical climate with alternate wet and dry seasons; intense leaching due to heavy rain
Properties	Deep to very deep; acidic (pH < 6.0); generally deficient in plant nutrients; prone to erosion
Location	Southern states; Western Ghats (Maharashtra); Odisha; parts of West Bengal; North-east
Humus	Rich under deciduous/evergreen forests; poor under sparse vegetation / semi-arid conditions
Crops	With conservation (hilly Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) useful for tea and coffee; red laterite in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala suitable for cashew nut

E. Arid Soils

Colour: red to brown; sandy texture; saline
High salt in some areas — common salt by evaporating water
Dry climate, high temperature → rapid evaporation; lacks humus and moisture
Lower horizons: Kankar (increasing calcium downwards) restricts infiltration
With proper irrigation become cultivable (e.g. western Rajasthan)

F. Forest Soils

Hilly/mountainous areas with sufficient rain forests
Texture varies: loamy and silty in valley sides; coarse-grained on upper slopes
Snow-covered Himalayas: denudation; acidic; low humus
Lower valleys, river terraces and alluvial fans: fertile

14. Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation

Soil erosion: denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down. Formation and erosion normally stay in balance; human activities (deforestation, over-grazing, construction, mining) and natural forces (wind, glacier, water) disturb the balance.

Type	Process	Result
Gully erosion	Running water cuts clayey soils into deep channels	Land unfit for cultivation → bad land; in Chambal basin called ravines
Sheet erosion	Water flows as a sheet over large sloping areas	Top soil washed away
Wind erosion	Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land	Loss of topsoil

Defective farming: ploughing up and down the slope creates channels for quick water flow → erosion.

Conservation Methods

Method	How it works
Contour ploughing	Ploughing along contour lines decelerates water flow down slopes
Terrace cultivation	Steps cut on slopes; restricts erosion; well developed in western and central Himalayas
Strip cropping	Large fields divided into strips; grass strips between crops break wind force
Shelter belts	Rows of trees create shelter; help stabilise sand dunes and desert in western India

Cause → Effect Snapshot

Indiscriminate resource use → Depletion + inequality + ecological crises
Resource-rich + no tech/institutions → Economic backwardness possible
Over-irrigation (Punjab–Haryana–W. UP) → Water logging → Salinity/alkalinity
Mining + deforestation → Land degradation (Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, MP, Odisha)
Disturbed soil balance → Gully / sheet / wind erosion → Bad land / ravines
Contour / terrace / strip / shelter belts → Reduced erosion; dune stabilisation